This report examines the current state of the various programs aimed at exerting some measure of control over these issues, and provides detailed background information and analysis of the global warming issue as it relates to air transportation.

It offers answers to the following questions:

• What are the key operating improvements available to aircraft operators seeking to reduce their annual fuel consumption bill?
• When will new aircraft, engine and other technologies become available aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions? What are these technologies?
• What will be the impact of emission trading schemes, and other regulatory initiatives, on airline greenhouse gas emissions?
• What is the range of current scientific opinion about the impact of aircraft operations on climate change?
• Which are the key research programmes which will deliver reduced greenhouse gas emissions at source?
• Which long-term proposals - for example, blended wing designs, formation flying, alternative fuels - offer the best opportunities to develop next-generation environmentally friendly aircraft?
• Which are the key enabling technologies - and investment opportunities - which will deliver improved fuel efficiencies in the near future? And which technologies are promising more than they will deliver?

Executive summary

Section one: Reason and methodology to the report

Section two: The aviation industry' s response to the challenge of climate change

• 2.1 Introduction
  • 2.1.1 The key technologies in which investment is needed to improve the environmental performance of civil aircraft
• 2.2 Manufacturing: research and development programmes to develop new, less polluting engines
  • 2.2.2 Introduction
  • 2.2.3 State-funded research to improve greenhouse gas emissions
  • 2.2.4 Significant engine company initiatives to improve greenhouse gas emissions
  • 2.2.5 The propfan alternative
  • 2.2.6 The “Clean Sky” industry initiative
  • 2.2.7 Conclusions
• 2.3 Manufacturing: research and development programmes to improve airframe and aircraft systems technology
  • 2.3.1 Introduction
  • 2.3.2 Towards the lighter aircraft
  • 2.3.3 Towards the all-electric aircraft - improved aircraft systems
  • 2.3.4 Aerodynamic improvements
  • 2.3.5 Winglets
  • 2.3 6 More esoteric designs - lifting bodies
• 2.4 The potential of new fuels
  • 2.4.1 Introduction
  • 2.4.2 The USAF synthetic fuel-blend trials
  • 2.4.3 Volvo Aero, SAS, Swedish Civil Aviation Authority and Oroboros (funded by Vinnova) alternative fuel study
  • 2.4.4 Virgin Fuels
  • 2.4.5 All-Electric Aircraft Propulsion - NASA Glenn
  • 2.4.6 Other fuel trials - hydrogen and liquefied natural gas
  • 2.4.7 Conclusions
• 2.5 Airlines: new operating concepts to lower emissions/noise using current infrastructure
  • 2.5.1 Introduction
  • 2.5.2 Re-equipping with new aircraft
  • 2.5.3 Painting, cleaning and more efficient MRO
  • 2.5.4 Better flight planning
  • 2.5.5. Optimised aircraft and crew management
  • 2.5.6 Flying at optimum altitudes and more slowly
  • 2.5.7 Reducing weight in the cabin
• 2.6 Airports - managing emissions during taxiing and operations in and around the airport
  • 2.6.1 Introduction
  • 2.6.2 Taxiing alternatives
  • 2.6.3 APU alternatives
• 2.7 Air traffic management - providing more environmentally friendly routings
  • 2.7.1 Introduction
  • 2.7.2 Redesigning airspace to optimise aircraft efficiencies
  • 2.7.3 The next major ATM efficiency improvement programmes
  • 2.7.4 Continuous descent approaches into airports

Section three: Estimates of current and future environmental impact

• 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.1.1 The Communication from the EU Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions - ‘Reducing the Climate Change Impact of Aviation'
  • 3.1.2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) ‘Aviation and the Global Atmosphere'
  • 3.1.3 Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP) ‘Special Study:The Environmental Effects of Civil Aircraft in Flight'
  • 3.1.4 The Stern Review
  • 3.1.5 Stockholm Environment Institute ‘Aviation and Sustainability - A Policy Paper'
  • 3.1.6 International Civil Aviation Organisation: Assembly 35th Session Working Paper: Agenda Item 15 - ‘Environmental Protection'
  • 3.1.7 Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT ‘Aviation and the Environment'
  • 3.1.8 ‘The possibility of introducing a kerosene tax on domestic flights in Germany' . Dr E Pache - legal opinion commissioned by the Federal Republic of Germany' s Environment Agency
• 3.2 Forecasts given within the reports analysed
• 3.3. Forecasts and recommendations of studies proposing the introduction of financial mechanisms to restrict aviation growth
• 3.4 Recommendations of studies arguing against the introduction of financial mechanisms to restrict aviation growth 124
• 3.5 Recommendations from the examinations of how to apply financial mechanisms to aviation

Section four: Regulatory and other initiatives to curb greenhouse gas emissions from aviation

• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.2 Pressures on governments to restrict aviation growth
• 4.3 The EU' s emissions trading scheme (ETS)
• 4.4 Emissions trading outside the EU
• 4.5 CAEP/7 and emissions trading guidelines
• 4.6 European Union initiatives and proposals beyond the ETS

• Appendix one: Airline initiatives to improve environmental performance
• Appendix two - aeronautical research programmes with environmental mitigation elements, part-funded by the European Commission
• Appendix three - report author biographies